The story takes us back to the year 602 AD in Luoyang, during the late Sui Dynasty. A boy was born into a family of scholars. His name was Chen Hui. At the age of 5, he lost his mother, and his second eldest brother, who had already become a Buddhist monk, took on the responsibility of raising him. At the age of 7, he was ordained as a novice monk at Jingtu Temple and received the monastic name “Xuanzang.” This marked the beginning of an epic journey that the world would never forget.
At the age of 21, he was fully ordained as a Buddhist monk and dedicated himself to the rigorous study of Buddhism. During this time, he discovered that the Buddhist scriptures available in the Tang Empire were filled with contradictions and inconsistencies. His deep understanding of these issues led him to make a momentous decision—to journey to the Indian subcontinent in search of the true Tripitaka.
However, since Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty had issued an order banning on citizens leaving the empire, Xuanzang made the bold decision to depart from Chang’an without official permission. To avoid detection by court officials and soldiers, he traveled under the cover of night and rested during the day. From his first step out of Chang’an to the distant lands of Jambudvipa, his journey was one of determination and perseverance.
Departure from Chang'an (629 CE)
Lanzhou, Zhangye, Dunhuang
From Chang’an to Lanzhou, he received assistance from local villagers and relied on merchant caravans to cross the arid lands. After traveling through the Hexi Corridor and reaching Dunhuang, he stopped there to further his studies in Buddhism. He visited the Mogao Caves and received support from local officials and the monastic community, who helped him gather supplies and horses for the next leg of his journey.
Yangguan, Taklamakan Desert, Gaochang
The next destination was to cross the border into Central Asia along the Silk Road, passing through the Yangguan Gate. He then entered the Taklamakan Desert, a harsh and unforgiving landscape where temperatures could soar to 40 degrees Celsius at times. After traversing the Taklamakan, he continued his journey to the Kingdom of Gaochang. There, he was warmly welcomed by King Qu Wentai of Gaochang, who generously provided supplies and assistants to support the next stage of his expedition.
Kucha, Kashgar, Pamir Mountains
From the Kingdom of Gaochang, he and his entourage set out for the Kingdom of Kucha, a land filled with over 100 temples and more than 5,000 Buddhist monks. He then continued his journey to Kashgar, where he had to prepare supplies, travel equipment, and pack animals for the challenging route ahead. The path from Kashgar was marked by deep valleys and mountain passes, requiring them to cross the Pamir Mountains. The Irkeshtam Pass, an ancient route connecting the region to the lands further west, was their chosen passage. This area was frigid, covered in snow year-round, making the journey extremely arduous.
Irkeshtam Pass, Ferghana Valley, Syr Darya, Afrosiab
Although this route was a major passage for merchant caravans, it was fraught with danger due to frequent snowstorms. Eventually, they reached the fertile Fergana Valley and crossed the Syr Darya River, one of Central Asia’s most important waterways. From there, they entered Afrasiyab, the heart of Sogdiana. This region was a key commercial hub along the Silk Road, where he encountered a surviving Buddhist community, though it had been influenced by other religions such as Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism played a significant role in Sogdiana, where fire temples served as centers of faith. Priests dressed in white conduct sacred rituals to keep the eternal flame burning, symbolizing purity and truth. This image captures the solemn atmosphere of the ceremony, reflecting the deep spiritual influence of Zoroastrianism in Central Asia. The sacred fire was a powerful emblem of divine presence, revered by the Sogdian people as part of their religious traditions.
Manichaeism
Additionally, in the land of Sogdiana, Manichaeism held significant influence over Sogdian merchants and the upper class. Its followers often gathered in buildings or small halls for prayer and meditation. Paintings depicting the prophet Mani adorned these spaces, and sacred scriptures were recited as the central focus of their rituals and worship.
Samarkand, Bactria
When Xuanzang arrived in Samarkand, a major trade center along the Silk Road and the heart of the Sogdian Kingdom, he experienced its rich cultural and religious diversity. Before continuing his journey to Bactria, a pivotal turning point in his travels, he received guidance from Buddhist monks on the route across the Hindu Kush Mountains. He also made preparations, securing supplies and camels for the challenging journey through the harsh and rugged terrain.
Hindu Kush Mountains, Bamiyan Valley
After departing from Bactria, Xuanzang had to cross the Oxus River, battling its fierce currents and violent storms. As he and his entourage entered the Hindu Kush Mountains, they encountered mountain bandits who preyed on travelers. Xuanzang narrowly escaped with the help of caravan merchants traveling the same route. These merchants provided him with supplies and valuable information about safer paths.
The treacherous journey through the winding and steep mountain passes was fraught with dangers, including avalanches and blizzards, making the passage extremely arduous. Despite the bitter cold and countless obstacles, he pressed on through the perilous route. Eventually, he arrived in the Bamiyan Valley, a site adorned with ancient monastery ruins and colossal Buddha statues carved into the cliffs.
Taxila
From the Bamiyan Valley, Xuanzang and his entourage continued their journey through rugged mountain paths filled with deep gorges and steep, narrow trails. Some sections of the route were covered in snow, requiring them to proceed with extreme caution. While crossing a fast-flowing river, they were caught in a fierce snowstorm that severely reduced visibility. At times, they had to set up camp amid the freezing cold, enduring harsh conditions with limited resources.
The grueling passage through this unforgiving terrain lasted several days before they finally descended into the plains of Gandhara. Upon arriving in the city of Taxila, a major cultural and trade center of the region, Xuanzang discovered ancient ruins and remnants of a once-flourishing civilization
Kashmir, Sarnath
After departing from Taxila, Xuanzang faced a treacherous journey through the Swat Valley and the region of Kashmir. The mountain paths were perilous, filled with deep ravines and raging rivers that made travel extremely difficult. Snowstorms and landslides posed constant threats, and in some areas, they had to cross unstable suspension bridges, risking a fatal fall. Additionally, Xuanzang had to remain vigilant against bandits who ambushed traveling caravans. He received assistance from local merchants who provided supplies and guided him toward safer routes.
As he descended into the plains of the Indus and Ganges rivers, the climate shifted to a hot and arid environment. The caravan routes were dusty and stretched for long distances with limited water sources. Passing through key cities such as Mathura, an important trade center, Xuanzang observed ruins of abandoned structures, reflecting the changing times and shifting civilizations.
After crossing the Yamuna River and enduring further hardships along the way, he finally arrived in Sarnath, near Varanasi. There, in the Deer Park of Isipatana, the Buddha had delivered his first sermon to the Five Ascetics. Xuanzang found remnants of ancient monasteries and stupas, still standing despite the passage of time. Though exhausted from his arduous journey, reaching this sacred site brought him closer to the spiritual and cultural heart of the civilization he had sought.
Varanasi
Xuanzang set out from Sarnath toward Varanasi, following a naturally connected route. Although the distance was not great, he witnessed noticeable changes in the environment. Situated along the banks of the Ganges River, Varanasi was a thriving center of trade and religion at the time. The city was bustling with people arriving for religious rituals, as well as merchants from various regions exchanging goods in the markets.
Xuanzang recorded that the city’s streets were teeming with travelers, horse-drawn carts, and traders carrying goods from distant lands. The riverfront was lined with busy ports and shipping docks, where commerce and transport flourished.
As he ventured into the heart of the city, he found Varanasi to be a hub of culture and education, with numerous learning centers, religious sites, and expansive marketplaces. However, he observed that Hinduism had become increasingly dominant, while Buddhism, once flourishing, had diminished in presence. Only a few Buddhist monasteries remained. Despite this, Varanasi continued to be one of the most significant cities, serving as a crucial link between the northern kingdoms and the fertile plains of the Ganges.
Kushinagar
As Xuanzang entered the city of Kushinagar, a profound silence enveloped the surroundings. Unlike the grand cities he had previously encountered, this small town was filled with ancient ruins, abandoned temples, and timeworn stupas that once stood in their former glory. He could feel the weight of history lingering in the air.
Kushinagar was the sacred site where the Buddha had entered Parinirvana. The remaining inhabitants deeply revered this holy place, preserving its sanctity with quiet devotion. Xuanzang paused for a brief stay, exploring the remnants of the past before continuing on to the next destination of his journey.
Vaishali
As Xuanzang entered the city of Vaishali, he found it still bustling with activity, serving as a vibrant hub for people from various regions. The central marketplace was filled with an array of goods, from spices and silk to gold and silver ornaments. Though traces of its former grandeur remained, the city had undergone changes with the passage of time.
Xuanzang spent time observing and studying the city’s landscape, gaining insight into its present state. After his brief stay, he continued his journey toward Rajgir, his next destination.
Rajgir
After departing from Vaishali, Xuanzang’s caravan faced the challenge of crossing the Ganges River, a perilous endeavor due to its powerful currents. They carefully navigated the crossing using wooden boats provided by local merchants. Upon reaching the southern banks, the route led them through dense forests and low-lying plains. Some areas were dotted with scattered villages, where the inhabitants maintained a traditional way of life. However, rumors of bandit attacks on trade caravans loomed, prompting Xuanzang to join other merchants for safety.
As they ventured deeper into the region of Magadha, the terrain began to shift, giving way to rolling hills. The path became increasingly winding and steep. Rajgir, his next destination, lay nestled within a valley, naturally fortified by the surrounding mountains, including Vebhara and Gridhrakuta.
Upon entering the city, Xuanzang observed the remains of ancient monasteries, temples, and royal palaces—testaments to Rajgir’s former glory. Though time had transformed the landscape, the city continued to stand as a powerful reflection of Magadha’s rich history and civilization.
Nalanda University
Xuanzang set out from Rajgir toward Nalanda, traveling through fertile plains dotted with villages and monasteries still inhabited by Buddhist monks. As he walked past lush fields and gently flowing rivers, he observed how the land’s abundance sustained the local communities. Though the journey was not long, the road was filled with pilgrims and seekers of wisdom, all making their way to one of the greatest centers of learning in the land of Jambudvipa.
Upon arriving at Nalanda University, he found a thriving institution, home to thousands of monks dedicated to rigorous study. The vast complex was surrounded by well-maintained monasteries, towering lecture halls, and an extensive library housing invaluable scriptures. Nalanda was a gathering place for scholars from various regions, and upon witnessing its intellectual vibrancy, Xuanzang became deeply aware of the immense significance of this place as a beacon of knowledge in his time.
Residence and Study at Nalanda
Upon arriving at Nalanda University, Xuanzang was warmly welcomed by Acharya Shilabhadra, the esteemed head scholar of the institution. He soon immersed himself in the deep study of Buddhist teachings. As a great center of knowledge, Nalanda housed over ten thousand monks from various regions, all dedicated to the pursuit of wisdom. The university complex was filled with monasteries, a vast library, and grand halls where philosophical debates took place.
Xuanzang spent several years rigorously studying Buddhist philosophy, including Mahayana, Hinayana, logic, and Abhidharma. He actively exchanged ideas with leading scholars and masters from across the Indian subcontinent, refining his understanding of Buddhist doctrines. His extensive studies and intellectual discussions transformed him into a distinguished expert in Buddhist philosophy. With his newfound mastery, he prepared for the next phase of his journey—collecting sacred scriptures
Journey Across the Indian Subcontinent
After spending several years studying at Nalanda, Xuanzang embarked on a new journey to explore and collect Buddhist scriptures from important regions across Jambudvipa. His pilgrimage began in Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha’s enlightenment, then continued to Sarnath, where the Buddha delivered his first sermon, and finally to Kushinagar, the place of his Parinirvana.
Along the way, Xuanzang passed through cities and monasteries that had once flourished. Some were still inhabited by monks, while others had turned into ruins, reflecting the passage of time. His journey took him across rugged landscapes, rivers, and mountains as he sought to deepen his knowledge of Buddhist art, culture, and philosophy in different regions. This extensive expedition allowed him to collect a vast number of scriptures and invaluable wisdom.
As his mission neared completion, Xuanzang began preparing for his long-awaited return to the Tang Dynasty, a journey he had anticipated for many years. His goal was to spread the sacred teachings and truths he had gathered throughout his pilgrimage.
Collecting Scriptures and Preparing for the Journey Back to Guangling
After traveling extensively across Jambudvipa, Xuanzang systematically gathered Buddhist scriptures, philosophical texts, and religious literature, particularly from Nalanda and other renowned centers of learning where he had previously studied. The collection of scriptures he amassed included Sutras, Abhidharma texts, treatises on logic, and various commentaries, which were fundamental to Buddhist scholarship of the time.
Beyond scriptures, Xuanzang also collected Buddha statues, stone inscriptions, and religious artifacts, intending to use them as educational tools to propagate Buddhist teachings upon his return to Guangling. Once he had secured a vast collection of sacred scriptures and significant relics, he began preparing for the arduous journey back to the Tang realm, determined to spread the profound wisdom he had sought throughout his pilgrimage.
Preparing for the Journey Back
The return journey to Guangling required meticulous planning. Xuanzang sought support from regional rulers and patrons in the Indian subcontinent to secure supplies, camels, horses, and an armed escort, knowing that the trek across deserts and mountains would be fraught with danger. Rather than retracing his original route along the Silk Road, he carefully chose a safer alternative, planning to travel through Afghanistan, Central Asia, and the western frontiers of Guangling to avoid potential threats.
A major challenge was the transportation of his vast collection of scriptures and sacred artifacts, which were both numerous and heavy. He arranged for carts and dedicated personnel to ensure their protection throughout the journey. Political unrest in certain regions and the constant threat of bandit attacks further complicated his plans. To mitigate these risks, Xuanzang secured official travel documents and letters of protection from kings and local rulers, granting him safe passage through various territories.
With everything in place, he set out on his return journey with unyielding determination. Despite the inevitable hardships ahead, he remained resolute, knowing that the wisdom and scriptures he carried would become a priceless intellectual legacy for Guangling and the broader Buddhist world.
The Return Journey and Xuanzang’s Translation Mission
After traveling extensively across the Indian subcontinent and gathering a vast collection of Buddhist scriptures, Xuanzang successfully returned to Guangling with his caravan, which carried numerous sutras, Buddha statues, and religious artifacts. His arrival drew significant attention from the imperial court, and he was soon summoned to Chang’an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong welcomed him with great honor.
Upon reaching Chang’an, Xuanzang was granted imperial support to establish a translation bureau, dedicated to rendering the Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Chinese. This monumental task spanned several years, with the collaboration of scholars and Buddhist monks from across the empire. His translations were highly accurate and influential, shaping the development of Buddhism in Tang China.
Beyond translation, Xuanzang authored a travelogue, meticulously documenting the cultures, societies, and religious traditions of the Indian subcontinent. This work became an invaluable historical record, offering insight into the regions he visited.
In his final years, Xuanzang remained devoted to his translation efforts until his passing in 664 CE. His lifelong contributions profoundly impacted Buddhism in China and East Asia, and he is remembered as one of the greatest Buddhist pilgrims and scholars in history.
